Chichen Itza History
Chichen Itza came to regional prominence near the end of the Early Classic period (roughly 600 AD). It was, however, towards the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the historical site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands. The ascension of Chichen Itza roughly correlates with the decline and fragmentation of the major centers of the southern Maya lowlands, such as Tikal.

Today belief trend in Maya scholarship is toward the more traditional model of the Maya kingdoms of the Classic southern lowlands.  Numerous archaeologists in late 1980s suggested that unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichen Itza may not have been governed by an individual ruler or a single dynastic lineage. Rather, the city’s political organization could have been structured by a “multepal” system, which is  rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.

Chichen Itza was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its time. Taking part in the water-borne circum-peninsular trade route through its port site of Isla Cerritos, Chichen Itza was able to obtain unavailable resources locally from distant areas.

Chichen Itza remained a place of pilgrimage for the Maya until it was defeated by the Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century. About 1221 the Maya revolted against the rulers of Chichen Itza. The city was not desolate, but as political power shifted elsewhere it declined and no major new buildings were constructed.

While Chichén Itzá “collapsed, ” it does not appear to have been completely abandoned. According to post-Conquest sources, both Spanish and Maya, the Cenote Sagrado remained a place of pilgrimage. The structures of Chichen Itza were covered with jungle and slowly decayed until major archaeological projects began in the 1920s. Since then, more of the ancient structures have been cleared and restored attracting more tourist to visit and explore the area.

In 2007, Chichen Itza’s El Castillo was named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World after a worldwide vote. The archaeological site brings many visitors from  Cancún, a poplular tourist resort.  From there one can make a day trip on tour buses.  A UNESCO World Heritage Site, Chichen Itza, is the second-most visited of Mexico’s archaeological historical sites.

Chichen Itza Visitor Information
Chichen Itza is located 125 miles from Cancun and 75 miles from Merida. It can be visited as a day trip from either location, and there are also a few hotels nearby in case you would like to arrive the previous day and get an early start visiting the ruins before the heat of the day sets in and the crowds begin to arrive.

Chichen Itza is open 7 Days a week from 8 am to 5 pm. Admission used to be free on Sundays for Mexican Citizens and foreign residents (with proof of residency) can enter free. All children under 13 and those over 60 can still enter free of charge. The admission fee for everyone else is 95 pesos per person.

A permit is required if you want to use a tripod to take photographs at the archaeological site. A small fee is made for the use of hand-held video equipment.

You’ll also need a good, comfortable pair of walking shoes as Chichen Itza is an extensive archaeological site. Wear light clothes since it gets very hot and humid here. Insect repellent is also very useful as this site is located in the jungle.

Some of the things to see while visiting Chichen Itza include the following:

• Maya Archaeological Sites - Famous Maya temples not to miss include Castillo which was recently named one of the seven wonders of the world, the Great Myan Ball-Court, and the Thousand Columns Temple.
• Maya Jungle Eco-tours- A great way to enjoy the Yucatan’s wildlife. This also typically includes bird watching, learning about Maya herbal medicine as well as mother nature and Maya myths.
• Cenote Swimming- Cenotes are surface connections to subterranean water bodies. This is an excellent way to enjoy the natural fresh waters of the Yucatan and is very inexpensive.
• Spa Rituals - For spa lovers you can receive a unique Maya experience. Many places offer holistic rituals and Maya healing ceremonies that are based on ancient traditions.

Chichen Itza Conservation
Over the past several years, INAH, which manages the site, has been closing monuments to public access. While visitors can walk around them, they can no longer climb them or go inside their chambers. This is to help ensure the protection and conservation of the sites for future generations. In 2008, one million dollars was pledged to help conserve and preserve this historic sites. Work will include improved facilities and restoration projects.

Alhambra History

Alhambra is a place where  intellectuals and artists took refuge as Christian Spain won victories over Al Andalus. At completion towards the end of Muslim rule in Spain by Yusuf I (1333-1353) and Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada (1353-1391), the Alhambra reflects the culture of the last days of the Nasrid emirate of Granada.

Beginning references to the Qal’at al Hamra were during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies during the rule of the ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad (r. 888-912). During one fierce and bloody skirmish, the Muladies easily defeated the Arabs, who were then forced to take shelter in a primitive red castle located in the province of Elvira, currently located in Granada. The castle was mainly ignored until the eleventh century, when its ruins were revived and rebuilt by Samuel in Naghrela, vizier to the King Bādīs of the Zirid Dynasty, in an effort to preserve the small Jewish colony also located on the Sabikah hill. According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was not large, and its walls did not have the ability of deterring an army determined to  conquer.

Founder of the Nasrid Dynasty,Ibn Nasr,  was forced to flee to Jaén to avoid persecution by King Ferdinand and his followers during attempts to rid Spain of Moorish Dominion. After making his way to Granada, Ibn-Nasr lived at the Palace of Bādis in the Alhambra. Several months later, he began on the construction of a new Alhambra fit for a king to reside. The lay-out included plans for six palaces, five of which were grouped in the northeast quadrant forming a royal quarter, two circuit towers, and numerous bathhouses. During the rule of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city complete with an irrigation system composed of acequias for the gardens of the Generalife located outside the fortress. Before, the old Alhambra structure depended on water from rain that was collected from a cistern and from what could be brought up from the Albaicín. The creation of the Sultan’s Canal solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive and ascetic structure.

Travel from the city to the Alhambra Park is possible by the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A steep ascent leads past the Pillar of Charles V, a fountain constructed in 1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Judgment), a large impressive horseshoe archway surmounted by a square tower and used by the Moors as an informal court of justice. The hand of Fatima, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the same  place on the interior.

Currently, the entrance to the Palacio Árabe, or Casa Real (Moorish palace), is located by a small door from which a corridor meets  the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the Pond), from the Arabic birka, “pool”. This court is 42 m (140 ft) long by 22 m (74 ft) wide; and in the middle, there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing around the sides. There are galleries on the north and south sides; the one on the south is 7 m (27 ft) high and supported by a marble column. From this court, the walls of the Torre de Comares can be seen rising over the rooftop to the north and reflected in the pond.

The square is paved with colored tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while the walls are covered 5 ft (1.5 m)  with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and gold. You will find that the columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly placed. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; about each arch there is a large square of arabesques; and over the pillars is another square of filigree work. The Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is an oblong court, 116 ft (35 m) long and 66 ft (20 m) wide, surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the court, with filigree walls and a light domed roof.

Of the outer buildings in connection with the Alhambra, the most iteresting is the Palacio de Generalife. This villa more than likely dates from the end of the 13th century but has been restored several times. Its gardens, however, with their clipped hedges, grottos, fountains, and cypress avenues, are said to keep their original Moorish character. The Torres Bermejas, also on Monte Mauror, is a well-preserved Moorish fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a garrison of 200 men. The Villa de los Martire remembers by its name the Christian slaves who were forced to build the Alhambra and kept here in subterranean cells.

The Muslim rulers lost Granada and Alhambra in 1492 without the fortress itself being attacked when King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile dominated the surrounding region with an overwhelming force of numbers.

The Alhambra matches many medieval Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a castle, a palace, and a residential annex. The alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the desolate and precipitous land which terminates the plateau on the northwest. Only massive outer walls, towers, and ramparts are left. On its watchtower, the Torre de la Vela, 25 m (85 ft) high, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised, in remembrance of the Spanish conquest of Granada on January 2, 1492.

Alhambra Visitor Information
The Alhambra is located in Granada Spain and is open year round. General admission tickets are €10 while tickets to the famous gardens are €5. The park opens at 8:30pm and is open to 6pm or 8pm depending on the season. It is important to arrive early as general admission tickets are sold on a first come, first serve basis. If you do not arrive by 9:30am, tickets are usually sold out, especially during the high tourist season.

Some of the things to highlight  while visiting Alhambra include:

• Travel to the Alhambra by foot- Alhambra is located at the top of a hill so going by foot is recommended to enjoy the natural and artistic aspects of the surroundings.

• The Gate of Pomegranates- This is the beginning of the tree lined avenues of the Alhambra. Pedro Machuca built this gate under the orders of Charles V around 1536.

• See a Flamenco Show - Everyday at 10:00 a “zambra” which is a form of a flamenco show which is danced in caves of the Sacromonte, the gypsy district is offered at the Alhambra.

• The World Famous Gardens of Generalife - The marvelous gardens, bordering on the Alhambra, were made in the early 14th century and conserve their original shaping. They have inspired many musicians and authors.

Angkor Wat History
The beginning of the Angkorian period was shortly after 800 A.D., when the Khmer King Jayavarman II announced the independence of Cambodia and established his capital at the northern end of Tonle Sap.  In 802 Jayavarman rendered his new status by declaring himself “universal monarch.”

For the next 300 years, between 900 and 1200 CE,  some of the world’s most amazing architectural masterpieces the Khmer empire produced, were in the area we know as Angkor.  Most of them are in an area about 15 miles east to west and 5 miles north to south. There are 72 major temples or other buildings in this area. The Angkor settlement around the temple complex was over 3,000 km² (1,150 square miles).

The main temple is Angkor Wat, built between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. After uniting his political position through military  diplomacy,campaigns, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman began the construction of Angkor Wat near what is now Siem Reap. With walls on each side nearly one-half mile long, Angkor Wat exudes the Hindu cosmology, and the central towers represent Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.

After defeating the neighboring Cham in 1181, Jayavarman took reign. He was known to be the greatest of the Angkorian kings. Jayavarman built the walled city of Angkor Thom, as well as its geographic and spiritual center, the temple known as the Bayon. Bas-reliefs at the Bayon represent not only the king’s battles with the Cham, but also representations from the life of Khmer villagers and courtiers. Jayavarman also constructed the well-known temples of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan, who he dedicated to his parents. During Jayavarman’s reign, Hindu temples were altered to show images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist shrine. The kingdom fell into a period of internal strife following the death of Suryavarman.

The year Angkor was rampaged and looted by Thai invaders, was notably the end of the Angkorian period and was generally around 1431 A.D. even though the civilization already had been in decline in the 13th and 14th centuries. During the 15th century, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned, except for Angkor Wat, which remained a Buddhist shrine. Angkor Wat was put on Unesco’s list of World Heritage sites in 1992 after many decades of wear and tear had taken their toll on this site in Cambodia.

Angkor Visitor Information
Visitors to the temples of Angkor must buy an entrance ticket. The ticket sales booths are open from 5 a.m. in the morning to 5:30 p.m. at night. A one day pass is US$ 20, a three day is US$ 40, and a week pass costs US$ 60.

Visitors must show their Angkor Pass every time they pass one of the checkpoints and at the entrance to most temples and other monuments in the Angkor Park. The temples are open from sunrise to sunset.

Angkor Wat is in western Cambodia near the Thailand border. The nearest town and the launching ground for tours is Siem Reap. The US dollar is the de facto currency of the country.

Besides the obvious vast amount of temples, here are some other highlights not to miss while at Angkor:

• Sunrise at Angkor Wat - Sunrise absolutely cannot be missed. Rays of light raised behind Angkor Wat make the whole temple covered with a spectacular and mysterious atmosphere that you must take in.
• The reflection of the three towers symmetry of Angkor Wat - One of the must-do’s and what most tourist do is jostle themselves for a shot of the reflection of the three towers symmetry of Angkor with the reflection in the pond. Since this is a place of interest with many tourist, this is also a good stopping point if you are alone. You can ask fellow travelers to take your photo with the background as evidence that you were there.
• Siem Reap - is the town and providence where Angkor Wat is located. It is only at the beginning of modernization and urbanization, so there are still interesting communities around the temples. This is also a great way to visit neat little markets  and contribute to the local village.
• Bayon Temple - If you only see one other temple besides Angkor Wat, Bayon should be the one. The giant stone faces of Bayon have become one of the most recognizable images connected to classic Khmer art and architecture. There are 37 standing towers, most but not all sporting four carved faces oriented toward the cardinal points. It is best to plan multiple days to see all of the temples, but if time does not allow, Bayon should be on your list.

Angkor Conservation Efforts
The celebrated Angkor temple complex is in great disrepair and is one of the many sites in the world where tourism has been a double edged sword. It currently draws about one million tourists a year, but estimates suggest that over the next few years visitor numbers could swell to as many as five million a year.

Such an increase in traffic is something the ancient sandstone structures are ill-equipped to cope. Even before the Communist guerrillas started shooting at it, the temple had to endure centuries of neglect in the humid jungle.

Conservation work on the site resumed after the end of the Cambodia civil war, and since 1993 has been jointly coordinated by the French and Japanese and UNESCO through the International Coordinating Committee on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), while Cambodian work is carried out by APSARA. Some temples have been carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations. The World Monuments Fund has aided Preah Khan, the Churning of the Sea of Milk (a 49-meter-long bas-relief frieze in Angkor Wat), Ta Som, and Phnom Bakheng.

Conservation efforts continue year after year in order to preserve the sites not only from the onslaught of tourism but from nature too. Locals are educated on the value of the site and on sustainable tourism methods. Angkor Wat is also under the constant threat of looting.

Colosseum History

The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater. It was named after its builders, the emperors Vespasian and Titus, both from the Flavian family. Construction began around 70 AD near the Palatine, Esquiline, and Caelian hills. The Colosseum was built to entertain the masses with barbaric games, such as the famous gladiator games.

The opening celebration was a 100 days of games in which thousands of animals and gladiators were killed. The Colosseum was finished in 80 AD and can accommodate more than 50,000 people. . Often times, the Colosseum was flooded in order to stage small naval battles. The emperor had his own entrance to the Colosseum, and from his private “box seat” he decided the fate of gladiators that had been defeated.  Beneath the floor of the Colosseum was a maze of passageways, and temporary holding pens for the animals. The floor of the arena was wood covered with sand. A manual elevator was used to raise the animals from the basement up to the arena floor. The walls of the subterranean passageways can still be seen today when you visit the site.

The Colosseum is also a marvel of efficiency. The Romans created tickets and assigned seating long before modern sports arenas came into existence. Before a game, a spectator would receive a ticket which had a number that corresponded to one of the 79 entrance arches. All arches had numbers above them. The ticket also included a level, and a seat number.

For almost 400 years, The Colosseum was used regularly and has survived through earthquakes, neglect, and the pillaging of popes who took its marble for their own buildings. It fell into despair for many centuries after its use, and has only been preserved in the last century.

Colosseum Visitor Information
Colosseum Admission Fees are as follow:
Full ticket - €15.50
EU reduced ticket - €10.50 (only for European citizens aged between 18 and 25)
EU minors & seniors ticket- €4.50 (only for EU citizens aged above 65 and under 18)

The Rome archaeological card is also valid at the Colosseum.

Colosseum Opening Hours:
Mid February - mid March: 9 AM - 4.30 PM
Mid March - end March: 9 AM - 5.00 PM
End March - end August: 9 AM - 7.00 PM
End August - end Sept.: 9 AM - 6.30 PM
End Sept. - end October: 9 AM - 6.00 PM
End October - mid March: 9 AM - 4.00 PM

The Colosseum is easy to get to with its own metro stop as well as being served by many buses. Tours to the Colosseum run daily and cost about €10 and can be used as a joint ticket to the nearby Palatine hill. You will also find many guides in the area who will offer you tours. Be careful who you choose- while many are knowledgeable and reputable, there are quiet a few who are not. Make sure they have an official tour guide license.

What to see while visiting The Colosseum:

• The Exterior - The exterior of the Roman Colosseum is made entirely of travertine, stretching 527 m around and four stories high.  There are 80 entrances, with the two main ones reserved for the emperor and his entourage.

• The Cavea - Otherwise known as the seating area. This is divided into three tiers: the lowest for knights; the middle for wealthy citizens; and the top for the general population. In total the Colosseum could hold up to 45,000 spectators.

• The Podium - The arena is surrounded by a 5m-high wall to protect spectators from attacks by wild beasts. At the top of the wall is where you will find the podium, on which the imperial party and other VIPs had their seats.
• The Colossus Statue of Nero - The statue after which the amphitheater is named, can be seen between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.
• Palatine Hill - As you come toward the end of the forum, there is a path that goes off to the right, up hill. The palatine hill. Approaching the Colosseum you will see several things. Vending trucks, people dressed as gladiators, souvenir carts, and tour touts.
  

Colosseum Conservation Effort
When restoration started in 1995, just 15 percent of the Colosseum was open to visitors. Now, up to 85% of the site is open to tourists. Last year, as many as 2.5 million people toured the world’s most famous amphitheater, making it by far Italy’s most visited site.

The Colosseum is constantly being renovated and cataloged in order to restore it. However, there is a lot of red tape in Italy as well as a lack of funds for many of their historic ruins. The Colosseum is not immune to this and thus progress on its conservation is much slower than it should be. Moreover, pollution from modern Rome is also a threat to the architecture.

Easter Island History
There has been a lot controversy over the origins of the Easter Islanders.  evidence if archaeological findings, however, indicates discovery of the island by Polynesians at about 400 AD - led, according to legend, by Hotu Matua. Upon their arrival, an amazing and enigmatic culture started to develop.  Alongside the statues, the islanders possessed the Rongorongo script; the only written language in Oceania. The island is also home to many petroglyphs (rock carvings), as well as traditional wood carvings, tapa (barkcloth) crafts, string figures, tattooing,music, and dance.

The population of Easter Island reached its capacity at  more than 10,000, far exceeding the capabilities of the small island’s ecosystem. Resources became scarce, and the once lush palm forests were destroyed - cleared for agriculture and moving the massive stone Moai. The island could no longer sustain the population and the society on the island, which mainly consisted  of a few dozen tribes, began to decline. The social order also began to decline into  civil war and, evidently, cannibalism, as people tried to survive. All of the Moai standing along the coast were eventually torn down by the islanders themselves. You will now find them placed around the island as  recent archaeological efforts have taken place.

Contacts with western “civilization” were even worse for the island population which, through slavery and disease, had decreased to approximately 111 by the turn of the century.  Following the annexation by Chile in 1888, it has risen to more than 2,000, with other Rapanui living in Chile, Tahiti and North America. Although there is a  growing Chilean presence, the island’s Polynesian identity is still pretty strong.

Easter Island Visitor Information
There is a Tourist Information office close to the main square on the island. Despite its extreme geographic isolation, the island has regular air travel from the mainland. There are many tourist services on the island and be prepared to pay a lot. Almost everything needs to be flown in from the mainland.

The flight is more than 5.5 hours in the air from the nearest continent. The only regular flights are via LAN Airlines. Fares range between US$300-US$1200 round trip from Santiago, Chile. There isn’t a lot of accommodation on the island and since things have to be important from far away, you will find the island very expensive. You can walk around the island to see the statues yourself- no admission fee is required.

Some of the highlights to see while you are on Easter Island include:

• Iglesia Parroquial de la Santa Cruz - This is the island’s Catholic church and a focus for the colorful Easter Sunday services where the priest is known to arrive and depart on horseback. Its interior is decorated with carved wooden statues, a vision of Christianity and Indigenous spirituality.
• Cementerio Hanga Roa - On the north end of town is the Hanga Roa Cemetery. This is a mostly Polynesian cemetery and is always vivid with decorations.
• Parque Nacional Rapa Nui - Created in 1935, this park comprises about 40% of the island’s surface. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995. Inside the Park you shouldn’t miss  moai monuments including Ahu Tahal, Ahu Ko Te Riku, and Ahu Vai Uri.

Easter Island Conservation Efforts
Conservation efforts on the island center on protecting the famous statues from decay and restoring them to their original glory. There is also a specific conservation project for two of Easter Island’s most famous moai, known as the “mama” and the “papa”. According to local tradition, the statues were named while poking fun at the early 20th century explorer Katherine Routledge and her husband William Scoresby Routledge. These statues stand in the Rano Raraku quarry, the source of most of the statues’ stones and still the location of almost 400 giant statues.

The AIA Site Preservation Task Force and Grant program was formed in 2008 in response to the rapidly accelerating destruction of ancient monuments and sites due to war, looting, extreme weather, and neglect. The Task Force believes that new approaches are required and will focus on people not just stones; that is the empowerment and economic development of the local population.

Machu Picchu History
Hiram Bingham, the credited discoverer of this historical site, along with several others, originally thought that the citadel was the traditional birthplace of the Inca of the “Virgins of the Suns”. Machu Picchu was built around 1460 at the height of the Inca Empire but abandoned less than 100 years later. It is likely that most of its inhabitants were wiped out by smallpox before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area, and there is no record of their having known of the remote city.

Another theories suggest that Machu Picchu was an Inca “llacta”, a settlement built to control the economy of these conquered regions. Yet others think that it may have been built as a prison for a select few who had committed heinous crimes against Inca society. Research conducted by scholars has convinced most archaeologists that rather than a defensive retreat, Machu Picchu was an estate of the Inca emperor, Pachacuti.

Although Machu Picchu is located only about 80 kilometers (50 miles) from the Inca capital, Cusco, it was never discovered by the Spanish and consequently not envaded and destroyed. Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle grew over much of the site, and few knew of its existence. The site was found on July 24, 1911, by Hiram Bingham.

Machu Picchu was established as a World Heritage Site in 1983 when it was described as “an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization”. On July 7, 2007, Machu Picchu was voted as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

Machu Picchu Visitor Information
There are several different ways to visit Machu Picchu: on foot, along the Inca Trail, by train from the city of Cuzco to Aguas Calientes, or by helicopter from the Cuzco airport to Aguas Calientes. Tours cost a few hundred dollars, while helicopter excursions cost more. There is a park fee of US$40 dollars to help maintain conservation of the park area.

Most people get to Machu Picchu via the Inca Trail. This is a four day hike through the mountains. It’s not long but it is very hard and the ascent is very steep. Tours book out months in advance and cost hundreds of dollars. The majority of hotels in Machu Picchu and the Sacred Valley can be found in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes. A little closer to the site itself, however, the Machu Picchu Sanctuary Lodge occupies an amazingly privileged spot, while back down in Cuzco, the Hotel Monasterio is an equally attractive (if not quite so perfectly located) choice of hotel in Machu Picchu and the Sacred Valley.

Highlights to see and do while visiting Machu Picchu include:

• Aguas Caliantes - Before your journey to Machu Picchu begins, Aguas Caliantes is a small village that sits at the bottom of Machu Pichu. The entire village is built around a river that is known for its hot springs. A small village where hikers and travelers alike are able to soak in the fresh air of the mountains, relax in natural hot springs, and fall asleep to the sound of the steadily flowing river.
• Temple of the Sun - The Temple of the Sun was used to honor and celebrate Inti, the Sun, an important Incan deity. When the sun of the winter solstice enters through the central window, it falls directly on the large ceremonial stone. The round building protects the stone.
• Temple of the Three Windows- located west of the main square and has a large rectangular floor. Its name comes from the fact that it has three main windows and two blind bays. With the main temple it is one of the most impressive architecture structures in Machu Pichu.
• Huayna Picchu - In Quechua this means “young peak”. The peak of Huayna Picchu is about 2,720 metres (8,900 ft) above sea level, or about 360 metres (1,200 ft) higher than Machu Picchu. You can hike to the top of Huayna Picchu in about 1-2 hours, and once atop you can look down over all of Machu Picchu. Truly a site not to be missed and well worth the extra hike. However, you may want to do this first as they only allow the first 400 people to make the hike.

Machu Picchu Conservation Efforts
UNESCO continually threatens to put Machu Picchu on its list of World Heritage in Danger sites, a designation meant to encourage swift corrective action.

In January 2001 the government began to regulate the trail and to require permits. Of the 93 tour operators that had sold Inca Trail packages at the time, half were denied permission to continue operating. To meet the new requirements tour operators must use only assigned camp sites with proper toilet facilities; carry all garbage with them; use only propane for fuel (no open fires); provide two guides for groups of more than seven tourists; and limit the amount porters carry to 25 kilos.

The World Monuments Fund placed Machu Picchu on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world because of environmental degradation resulting from the impact of tourism, uncontrolled development in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes that included a poorly sited tram to ease visitor access, and the construction of a bridge across the Vilcanota River that is likely to bring even more tourists to the site in defiance of a court order and government protests against it.

Parthenon History
In 447 B.C. the construction of the Parthenon began. The Parthenon is a large temple and its artistic appeal emanates from the refinement of many established norms of Greek architecture, and from the quality of its sculptural decoration. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. The Parthenon is a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis. I

The Parthenon took the place of  an older temple of Athena that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. Standard to most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as a treasury, and for some time served as the treasury of the Delian League.  The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin in the 6th century AD.  After the Ottoman conquest, it was transformed into a mosque in the early 1460s. In September 1687, an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment. The explosion severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures.

Parthenon Visitor Information
Tickets to the Acropolis are available at the entrance to the site and also include admittance to the Ancient Agora of Athens, located at the foot of the hill leading up to the site. This ticket will allow you entrance to all the sites around the acropolis, the walking paths, and Acropolis. It is good for the day.

The Parthenon is open from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. in wintertime and 8:00 a.m. to 7:30 p.m in the summer. Tickets are €12 per person. The Acropolis offers a number of free admission days throughout the year. Check the tourism website for specific days as it frequently changes. Children under 18 are admitted free.

You can’t go inside the Parthenon itself and most of it’s hidden under scaffolding because of restoration projects to the heritage site. This site does provide for excellent views of the city and other nearby historic ruins.

Some of the highlights to see while you are visiting Parthenon include:

• The Orders - The three main types of columns used in Greek temples and other public buildings are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The truest and most basic difference among the orders has to do with proportions (Doric columns, for example, being thicker and shorter, Ionic columns taller and slimmer).
• The Metopes - The metopes of the Parthenon all represent various instances of the struggle between the forces of order and justice, on the one hand, and criminal chaos on the other. On the west side, the mythical battle against the Amazons,  on the south, the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, on the east, the battle between the gods and the giants, and on the north, the Greeks versus the Trojans.
• The Pedimental Sculptures - These relief sculptures, larger than those of the metopes, occupy the triangular space above the triglyphs and metopes. The pedimental sculpture suffered badly when the Parthenon was hit by a Venetian shell in 1687 and the powder magazine inside exploded.
• The Frieze - The Parthenon frieze runs around the upper edge of the temple wall. Its relatively small size and is a bit difficult to see from the ground. It is known to illustrate the over-confident spirit of the Athenians, who dared to put themselves where ordinarily only gods and heroes might be found.

Parthenon Conservation Efforts
In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use. The incorrect reconstructions were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began. New Pentelic marble is being used from the original quarry. Ultimately, almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the structure where they originally would have been, supported as needed by modern materials.

Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron pins that were completely coated in lead, which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated and corroded. Since the corrosion product is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble. All new metalwork uses titanium, a strong, light, and corrosion resistant material.

An immediate problem facing the Parthenon is the environmental impact of the growth of Athens since the 1960s. Corrosion of its marble by acid rain and car pollutants has already caused irreparable damage to some sculptures and threatens the remaining sculptures and the temple itself.

Petra History
This site in Jordan has been inhabited since very ancient times. Petra reached its greatest importance under the Nabataeans, an ancient people whose original homeland was in northeastern Arabia. They migrated westward in the 6th century BC and eventually settled at Petra. Not much is known about the Nabateans’ history before 312 BC, when Petra was unsuccessfully attacked by Seleucid forces. Petra was also made famous by the third Indiana Jones movie.

By the 1st century BC the powerful and rich  Nabataean kingdom that extended from Damascus in the north to the Red Sea in the south, and Petra was home to as many as 30,000 people. It was during this period that the most amazing structures of Petra were built, including the Treasury, the Great Temple and the Qasr el-Bint el-Faroun.

In the 1st century AD the Siq was paved and the beautiful classical theater was constructed. After annexation, Roman touches were added to Petra such as the colonnaded cardo (main street). A Nabataean-style tomb was built in Petra for the Roman governor of Arabia Sextius Florentius (127 AD), and a high-ranking Roman soldier was buried in another tomb. The Urn Tomb also dates from this period (2nd-3rd century).

Various tombs and temples at Petra were also used as churches, including the Monastery and the Urn Tomb.

Christianity arrived in the 4th century, and a Byzantine church, whose ruins can still be seen at Petra, was built around 450-500 AD.

After the Crusades, Petra became a “lost city,” known only to local Arabs. It was hidden from the Western world for more than 500 years. Johann Ludwig Burckhardt rediscovered Petra in 1812. The Swiss explorer was a brilliant student with a passion for adventure, and in 1809 he was contracted by a London-based association to explore the “interior parts of Africa.” After intense study of Islam and Arabic for three years, Burckhardt disguised himself as a Muslim scholar, took the name Ibrahim ibn Abdullah, and set out for Egypt. On his way, however, he was intrigued by local tales of a lost city in the mountains. In 1812, he became the first modern Westerner to see Petra using the pretense that he wanted to offer a sacrifice to the Prophet Aaron, he persuaded a guide to take him there.

Petra Visitor Information
Petra is a huge archaeological site and you will need 1 to 3 days to fully explore it. Guided Tours are available, and staff at the Petra Visitor’s Center at entrance of the site are at your service to answer your questions and provide assistance.

Petra is open from 6 AM to 6 PM everyday.

Entrance Fees:
Adults: one day: US$ 16 two days: US$ 20 three days: US$ 23
Students and Children under 12 years: one day: US$ 8.5 two days: US$ 10.25 three days: US$ 12

However, the best way to see Petra is on a guided tour, whether organized through the park service or via a tour group. Petra has a lot of history and taking a tour can help you understand the site and its meaning much more.

Highlights and what you should see while at Petra include:

• Al-Khaznehis - Also known as The Treasury. It sits about  40 meters high, completely carved in the rock, this is however the most impressive and famous  building of Petra. Kazneh means treasure; it was not a temple but simply a tomb. The Bedouins have long thought that the urn at the top was containing the treasure of the dead that has rested there for some time.It is good to arrange to see it in the morning with the light shining on it.
• The Street of Facades - After viewing the Treasury, next you will come to the Street of Facades, which is lined with tall impressive tombs with large facades or false faces on their fronts. The street eventually leads down to the heart of the city proper.
• The Sig - The Sig is a mile-long narrow gorge that leads into the city of Petra. To reach the start of the Sig, visitors must first walk about a half a mile down the wide valley known as Bab as-Sig. You can rent a horse or donkey to carry you there or walk and see all of the sights along the way.
• The Monastery - When you see post cards of Petra or those little stone carvings, it is almost certain that it is going to be an image of the Monestary. Along with the Treasury at the opposite end of Petra, it is probably the best preserved building in the ancient city, and an obvious must see. You can walk or take a donkey. If you walk, be prepared to climb many many steps.
  

Petra Conservation Efforts
Petra was declared a World Heritage site in 1985. Tourism at Petra has been a double-edged sword because of vandalism, litter, and other problems associated with increased traffic. In the last twenty years, many projects have been undertaken by the Jordanian government and outside agencies to preserve the site. Among the more successful conservation efforts is one that has dealt with the infrastructure needed to serve the tourism industry. In 1996, a $27 million plan was set up to create an adequate drainage system and a new road network to replace the one currently clogged with buses and taxis.

In more recent years, the Jordanian government has taken very seriously their commitment to preserve this valuable historical site, considered by many Jordanians to be a priceless national treasure. For long-term restoration and conservation of the actual monuments, a German-Jordanian consortium has created the Conservation and Restoration Center in Petra (CARCIP) to provide permanent, on-site preservationists, architects, and stonecutters whose sole responsibility is the upkeep and protection of the site.

Pyramids History
The first historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Amenhotep is given the credit for being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other — creating an edifice composed of a number of “steps” that decreased in size towards its apex.  The Step Pyramid of Djoser was the result — which was designed to serve as a huge stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could move to the heavens. Such was the importance of Imhotep’s achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians.

The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of absolutist pharaonic rule.  The most famous pyramids, those near Giza, were built during this time. Over time, as authority became less centralized, the ability and willingness to gather the resources required for construction on a massive scale decreased, and later pyramids were smaller, less well-built, and often hurriedly constructed.

When the Great Pyramid of Egypt was built it was 146 meters (438 feet) high. Time has worn the pyramid down by 10 meters (30 feet) and it still continues to erode. The pyramid was once covered with limestone that was painted a bright red color. The sides of the pyramid are carefully positioned to point north, south, east, and west. The bottom of the pyramid has sides that measure 227 meters (681 feet) in length. It was designed so precise that the error margin between the sides is less then 1 percent.

It belonged to the Pharaoh Khufu and once held his body. The pyramid is made up of approximately two million blocks of limestone with each weighing more than two tons.  This pyramid today is the last wonder of the world that is still standing.

The Second Pyramid belongs to the Pharaoh Khafre. Unlike the pyramid of Khufu, the angle of this pyramid is 53 degrees. This pyramid is three meters shorter then Khufu’s and stands on the northern side of the Giza Plateau. The top of the pyramid has some limestone left with a white cap on top of the pyramid that can be still seen. This large tomb had been looted before archeologists found it.

The Third Pyramid or the The pyramid of Menkaure  is the smallest of the three pyramids. Its design is not as well detailed as the other two pyramids. Although the pyramid was not complete when Menkaure died, his son Shepseskaf took the task to finish the large project. This pyramid stands 66 meters high.

Pyramids Visitor Information
The Pyramids are open from 8am-4pm (until 5pm summer) daily. They are free to walk around and see. You will only need to pay a fee if you wish to enter the Pyramids or one of the other sites around the Pyramids. However, if you just want photos, all that costs is a cab ride!

Getting around the pyramids is easy enough, you can walk, take a horse and buggy or take a camel ride. You can go inside the pyramids, but beware if you suffer from claustrophobia. The climbs are very steep and narrow so your knees have to be in good shape. You have to get a separate ticket to enter the pyramids and they are limited to 300 per day so get there early.

A taxi from the center of Cairo is probably the easiest way to get to the Pyramids, although mini and micro buses also make frequent trips. An air-conditioned bus also departs regularly from the Midan Tahrir. For advice on getting to the Pyramids from other parts of Egypt.

Some of the most popular Pyramids include:

• Step Pyramid of Djoser- Also known as Egypt’s first Pyramid. Intended to hold his mummified body, Pharaoh Djoser’s Step Pyramid at Saqqara began as a traditional, flat-roofed mastaba. But by the end of his 19-year reign, in 2611 B.C., it had risen to six stepped layers and stood 204 feet (62 meters) high. It was the largest building of its time.

• Maidum Pyramid - Likely influenced by the Step Pyramid, Snefru, the first king of the 4th dynasty , constructed a seven-level stepped pyramid some 35 miles (56 kilometers) south of Saqqara. The was also the first Egyptian pyramid with an above ground burial chamber.

• Great Pyramid or Khufu’s Pyramid - The Great Pyramid is the largest and best known of the three Old Kingdom pyramids located on the Giza Plateau in Egypt, built during the reign of the Pharaoh Khufu between 2589 and 2566 BC.

• The Bent Pyramid - The Bent Pyramid is one of the Old Kingdom Pyramids at Giza, Egypt; built in the 4th Dynasty, 2680-2565 B.C. for the 4th dynasty pharaoh, Sneferu.

Pyramids Conservation Efforts
Several years ago, a master plan was drawn up to manage and restore the monuments of Giza in four phases. Most of the phases have been completed. The main threats of old to the sites are no longer relevant. Today most of the threats come from the sands, pollution, and over tourism.

The final phase is a 10-15 year program of maintenance and research. It includes staff training to provide adequately knowledgeable personnel to administer the site, to provide up-to-date conservation whenever necessary and to continue the clearing and research programs which will enhance the site for visitors and scholars. There is also to be a re-excavation and clearing, especially in the cemeteries of the nobles to the east and west of the Great Pyramid.

Finally, mapping and excavation of the area south and west of the Third Pyramid where tumbled debris from the pyramid has never been cleared. This needs skilled photogrammetric planning before removing fallen blocks which may be covering long-sought-after evidence of building ramps and construction methods.

Stonehenge History

One of the most famous prehistoric sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones and sits at the center of the densest complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England. Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 3.2 kilometers west of Amesbury and 13 kilometers north of Salisbury, England.

Archaeologists believed that the iconic stone monument was erected around 2500 BC. However, a recent theory has suggested that the first stones were not erected until 2400-2200 BC. The site and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 and Stonehenge is also a legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument. The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. . Stonehenge itself is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.

New archaeological evidence discovered by the Stonehenge Riverside Project states that Stonehenge served as a burial ground from its beginning. The dating of cremated remains suggested that burials took place as early as 3000 B.C, when the first ditches were being built around the monument. Burials continued at Stonehenge for at least another 500 years when the large stones which mark the landmark were erected.

Stonehenge Visitor Information
Stonehenge in England is open during the following time:
Spring : 1 Jun to 31 Aug, 09.00am - 19.00pm
Summer : 1 Jun to 31 Aug . 09.00am - 19.00pm
Autumn : 1 Sept to 15 Oct, 09.30am - 18.00pm
Winter : 16 Oct to 15 Mar, 09.30am - 16.00pm

Stonehenge ticket prices are as follows:

Adult £6.40
Child (5 - 15) £3.20
Concession £5.10
Family Ticket £16.00
English Heritage and National Trust Members: Free

The ticket also gets you an audio guide and access to the museum which can help you put the site in context and learn more about its history and recent conservation efforts.

Stonehenge is open every day of the year except Christmas Eve and Christmas Day. To get to Stonehenge, you need to a take a bus from one of the neighboring towns of Salisbury or Amesbury. There is a bus from Salisbury that leaves every 15 minutes and stops at a few other historical sites along the way.

Some suggestions for your visit to Stonehenge :

• Walk around the site and take the audio tour - Admission includes a free complimentry audio tour which is available in Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, Swedish and Russian.
  
• Private Access Visit - It is possible to arrange private access visits that take you into the circle, you will need to book these in advance with English Heritage.
• Walk about and Marvel - Since following a tour guide, listening to the audio tour, or reading your guide book as you stare at this structure does not take a long time walkabout and marvel at the construction of Stonehenge and the mystery behind it. Spend your time to take enough pictures of the amazing feet of engineering.
  

Stonehenge Conservation Efforts
Stonehenge’s biggest problem was people and until recently people could just walk right up to the site. However, because of vandalism and wear on the stones, a fence as been erected around the site restricting access. Moreover, visitors are no longer able to walk right up and touch the stones in order to protect them. Archeological digs happen all around the Stonehenge area in order to get a better understanding of the historic site’s significance, history, meaning, and age.