Lopburi History
Lopburi is one of Thailand’s oldest cities and has a long history that dates back to the Dvaravati period over 1000 years ago. It was then known as Lavapura and was under the Angkor regime, which is evidenced in many of the remaining architecture. It was used as a hub for the Khmer empire. It became a very important center in the Chao Phraya Basin.

Lopburi later became known as the second capital of Thailand after Ayutthaya. King Narai used Lopburi as his stronghold and “summer capital” and sometimes spent eight months a year there. Lopburi was abandoned after King Narai died in 1688 at his palace. King Mongkut (King Rama IV) restored parts of the ancient city in 1856 and resided here for parts of his reign.

Lopburi Visitor Information
You can reach Lopburi a number of ways. If going by bus, it takes about two hours from Ayuthaya, with buses leaving every 20 minutes. It takes roughly 3.5 hours from Bangkok and also leaves every 20 minutes. The majority of travelers coming to Lopburi arrive via train, either coming north from Ayuthaya or south from Phitsanulok. You can walk to historic sites from the train station, and you will also have plenty of lodging options. You can also utilize the baggage storage at the train station if you are making Lopburi a day trip. There are many departures throughout the day, with rapid and express trains taking about three hours to Bangkok and regular trains taking about 4.5 hours.

There are many sites to choose from when visiting Lopburi:

• Ban Vichayen are the remains of the ambassador’s residence which was built during the reign of King Narai the Great.
• Phra Kahn Shrine is the site of a small shrine and has lots of the famed monkeys of Lopburi. Be aware of the monkeys everywhere in Lopburi as they are not afraid of people and will pester you for food. There have also been reports of purse and bag snatching by the monkeys, so be on guard.
• King Narai’s Palace was built in 17th century, was restored in 1856 by King Mongkut, and was eventually converted to a museum in 1924. The remains of various buildings are on display here while the central palace holds various prehistoric exhibits, and King Mongkut’s bedroom in its entirety.
• Wat Phra Sri Rattanamahathat is one of the most important temples of Lopburi. You do not have to be on guard for monkeys as there are none here. Foreigners pay a 50 bhat entrance fee.

History of the Valley of the Kings
The Valley of the King is an Egyptian archaeological site located in the hills behind the West Bank of Luxor. It is one of the most fascinating archaeological destinations in the entire world and is the burial place of many Egyptian pharaohs. The position of the Valley of Kings is quite isolated, resulting in reduced access and the ability of special tomb police, called the Medjay, who were able to guard the necropolis.

Ahmose I defeated the Hyksos and reunified Egypt several thousand years ago. Ahmose I was a member of the Theban Royal House. These Theban rulers constructed elaborate tombs to reflect their newfound power. Ahmose’s son, Amenhotep I, is said to have been among the first royal tombs in the Valley of Kings, but this is disputed by historians. Notes in Thutmose I’s tomb shows that he advised his king to place his tomb in the Valley of the Kings.

At least sixty three tombs are contained in the Valley of Kings, which was used for burials between approximately 1539 BC to 1075 BC. Thutmose I is said to be the first to be buried here (although some would say it was his father, Amenhotep) and Ramses X or XI is said to have been the final king buried here.

One would assume the Valley of the Kings only contained tombs of kings, but it also contains the tombs of many nobles along with wives and children of those nobles and pharaohs. Out of the sixty three tombs, only about twenty actually contain remains of kinds. Nobles and their families were buried in unmarked pits. During the time of Ramses I (about 1301 BC), construction on a separate Valley of the Queens began.

Napoleon noted the western valley for the first time during his exploration on the area in the late 1700’s. European exploration continued during the 19th century in the area around Thebes. Belzoni visited the area later in the century and discovered several tombs in the West Valley, including those of Ay in 1816 and Seti I in 1817 Belzone claimed that all tombs had been found and nothing else remained.

American Theodore Davis came to the Valley of Kings around the beginning of the 20th century. Him and his team discovered many royal and non-royal tombs. He eventually found what they thought were the remains of Tutankhamun’s burial site, and exclaimed that the valley was completely explored and there was nothing else to be found. Davis died in 1915 and Lord Carnarvon took over and discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun in late 1922. Expeditions have continued in the valley and added a great deal of knowledge of the area.

Valley of the Kings Visitor Information
The Valley of the Kings is open daily in the summer from 6am to 6pm. In the winter hours are 9AM to 5PM. Admission is LE 70 for three tombs. Tourists get to choose those three tombs. If you want to visit more than three, you will need to buy additional tickets from the main ticket office in the West Bank. Experts suggest that tourists visit at least one tomb from each of the main building phases, of which there are three.

Most tombs are not open to the public. Eighteen of the tombs can be opened but are seldom open all at once. Restoration work is quite extensive, which causes officials to close many that are open in order to be worked on. The tomb of Ay in the West Valley is the only one in that area that is open. Tourists need a separate ticket when visiting this tomb. Tour guides used to be able to inform tourists while giving tours, but they are not allowed to talk while inside the actual tombs. Travelers are expected to remain respectful and quiet when proceeding through the tombs. The point is to minimize time in the tombs and prevent damage from the large amount of crowds. Photography is also not allowed when visiting the tombs. Four to five thousand visitors come to the main valley on most days. Experts expect numbers to rise to 25,000 by 2015.

Highlights of Valley of the Kings

• Tutankhamun’s tomb is arguably the most popular highlight of a visit to the Valley of Kings. It does require a separate ticket which costs LE 100. Although most want to visit Tutankhamun’s tomb, travelers sometimes leave disappointed compared to other royal tombs. It is much smaller and has much less decoration than other tombs. The riches found in the tomb are now housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. If you’re short on time, you may want to skip this one.
• Phase One Tombs: The tomb of Thutmose III is located in one of the most remote areas in the valley. You must walk up several flights of steps, but it is worth the climb.
• Phase Two Tombs: The tomb of Horemheb is worth visiting as he is the last king of the 18th Dynasty. The Tomb of Merneptah, who was the son of Ramses II, has paintings and reliefs that are in good condition.
• Phase Three Tombs: The Tomb of Ramses VI was originally started by Ramses V. Ramses VI enlarged the tomb and had workers carver his image over his Ramses V’s. One of the most interesting tombs surviving in the Valley is Ramses VI because it is the most complete and best preserved.

Bagan History
The Bagan ruins cover a 16 square mile area. Most of its buildings were built in the 1000s to 1200s. Bagan was the capital of the First Burmese Empire during the construction of the temples. Once King Pyinbya moved the capital to Bagan in 874, it became a major city. The capital shifted with each reign because of Burmese tradition, so Bagan was again abandoned until the Anawrahta’s reign, when, in 1057, he conquered Thaton’s capital of Mon in an effort to transform Bagan into a religious and cultural centre. King Anawrahta made Theravada Buddhism a state religion with the help of a monk, and it is estimated that upwards of 13,000 temples and stupas were built in the 42 square kilometer area in central Burma Bagan became a cosmopolitan center of Buddhist studies after this, and monks from all over, including India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the Khmer Kingdom. The kingdom fell to the Mongols in the late 13th century and the city was abandoned as a political centre, thus beginning the decline. It did continue to flourish as a Buddhist place of worship despite the population being reduced to a village remaining amongst the ruins of this once great city. This village remained for hundreds of years before being forcibly relocated in 1998. They moved a few kilometers south and formed New Bagan. Here you can find places to stay in a variety of cheap, quaint, clean hotels and religious centers.

Despite Bagan’s history and historical importance, it is still not recognized as a Unesco World Heritage Site. They claim that it’s because not all temples were built in a “historic” way. Regardless of its omission by Unesco, Bagan is arguably as impressive as some of the world’s other most historic sites like the Egyptian Pyramids and Cambodia’s Angkor Wat.

About 2,200 temples and stupas remain today in various states of maintenance. Some are in great shape, and some are in overgrown and small relics of their former selves. All temples and stupas are considered sacred sites, so be sure to dress appropriately and take off your shoes before entering any temples.

Bagan Visitor Information
All visitors to Bagan pass through a ticket booth upon entrance where you present your passport. You can purchase your US$10 ticket here that remains valid for your entire stay (March 2008). You also need these passes for accommodation. Local hotels and hostels record the ticket number when you check in.

There are many ways to reach Bagan. Travelers can fly from Yangon or Mandalay. If taking the overland route, prepare to have some extra time on your hands. Overnight trains from Yangon take close to 24 hours, and night buses leave Yangon in the afternoon and arrive early the next morning. The train from Mandalay takes about seven hours and has two daily departures, while comfortable bus rides are also available.

Some of the things to highlight when visiting Bagan include:

• Temples. There are over two thousand temples and stupas still standing in Bagan, and they are the main highlight of any trip here. Most Popular Temples:

1. Ananda Temple houses the four standing Buddhas, with each one facing the East, North, West and South. The temple is an architectural masterpiece and has been known as the “Westminster Abbey of Burma.”
2. Dhammayangyi Temple is the largest temple in Bagan. Dhammayan was built during the reign of King Narathu, who assassinated his father and older brother. He is said to have built this temple to atone for his sins.
3. Thatbyinnyu Temple is Bagan’s tallest temple at 200 feet high and is shaped like a cross, though it is not symmetrical. It has two primary stories, with the seated Buddha image located on the second story.

• Hot Air Balloon Ride: Not necessarily for the budget traveler, but a hot air balloon ride will give you a view of Bagan like no other. A sunrise balloon ride is offered by Balloons Over Bagan for US$ 295 per person. All balloons are made in England and have a perfect safety record.
• Horse and Driver: A horse cart and driver can be hired to take you around Bagan for about US$5/day.
• Bike: A bike can be rented for about US$1/day and is a great alternative to walking or hiring a driver. There isn’t much traffic on the roads, making riding easier, and if you’re an early riser and get up before 8am, chances are you won’t be competing with many other people, not to mention the cooler weather.

Chichen Itza History
Chichen Itza came to regional prominence near the end of the Early Classic period (roughly 600 AD). It was, however, towards the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the historical site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands. The ascension of Chichen Itza roughly correlates with the decline and fragmentation of the major centers of the southern Maya lowlands, such as Tikal.

Today belief trend in Maya scholarship is toward the more traditional model of the Maya kingdoms of the Classic southern lowlands.  Numerous archaeologists in late 1980s suggested that unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichen Itza may not have been governed by an individual ruler or a single dynastic lineage. Rather, the city’s political organization could have been structured by a “multepal” system, which is  rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.

Chichen Itza was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its time. Taking part in the water-borne circum-peninsular trade route through its port site of Isla Cerritos, Chichen Itza was able to obtain unavailable resources locally from distant areas.

Chichen Itza remained a place of pilgrimage for the Maya until it was defeated by the Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century. About 1221 the Maya revolted against the rulers of Chichen Itza. The city was not desolate, but as political power shifted elsewhere it declined and no major new buildings were constructed.

While Chichén Itzá “collapsed, ” it does not appear to have been completely abandoned. According to post-Conquest sources, both Spanish and Maya, the Cenote Sagrado remained a place of pilgrimage. The structures of Chichen Itza were covered with jungle and slowly decayed until major archaeological projects began in the 1920s. Since then, more of the ancient structures have been cleared and restored attracting more tourist to visit and explore the area.

In 2007, Chichen Itza’s El Castillo was named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World after a worldwide vote. The archaeological site brings many visitors from  Cancún, a poplular tourist resort.  From there one can make a day trip on tour buses.  A UNESCO World Heritage Site, Chichen Itza, is the second-most visited of Mexico’s archaeological historical sites.

Chichen Itza Visitor Information
Chichen Itza is located 125 miles from Cancun and 75 miles from Merida. It can be visited as a day trip from either location, and there are also a few hotels nearby in case you would like to arrive the previous day and get an early start visiting the ruins before the heat of the day sets in and the crowds begin to arrive.

Chichen Itza is open 7 Days a week from 8 am to 5 pm. Admission used to be free on Sundays for Mexican Citizens and foreign residents (with proof of residency) can enter free. All children under 13 and those over 60 can still enter free of charge. The admission fee for everyone else is 95 pesos per person.

A permit is required if you want to use a tripod to take photographs at the archaeological site. A small fee is made for the use of hand-held video equipment.

You’ll also need a good, comfortable pair of walking shoes as Chichen Itza is an extensive archaeological site. Wear light clothes since it gets very hot and humid here. Insect repellent is also very useful as this site is located in the jungle.

Some of the things to see while visiting Chichen Itza include the following:

• Maya Archaeological Sites - Famous Maya temples not to miss include Castillo which was recently named one of the seven wonders of the world, the Great Myan Ball-Court, and the Thousand Columns Temple.
• Maya Jungle Eco-tours- A great way to enjoy the Yucatan’s wildlife. This also typically includes bird watching, learning about Maya herbal medicine as well as mother nature and Maya myths.
• Cenote Swimming- Cenotes are surface connections to subterranean water bodies. This is an excellent way to enjoy the natural fresh waters of the Yucatan and is very inexpensive.
• Spa Rituals - For spa lovers you can receive a unique Maya experience. Many places offer holistic rituals and Maya healing ceremonies that are based on ancient traditions.

Chichen Itza Conservation
Over the past several years, INAH, which manages the site, has been closing monuments to public access. While visitors can walk around them, they can no longer climb them or go inside their chambers. This is to help ensure the protection and conservation of the sites for future generations. In 2008, one million dollars was pledged to help conserve and preserve this historic sites. Work will include improved facilities and restoration projects.

Alhambra History

Alhambra is a place where  intellectuals and artists took refuge as Christian Spain won victories over Al Andalus. At completion towards the end of Muslim rule in Spain by Yusuf I (1333-1353) and Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada (1353-1391), the Alhambra reflects the culture of the last days of the Nasrid emirate of Granada.

Beginning references to the Qal’at al Hamra were during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies during the rule of the ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad (r. 888-912). During one fierce and bloody skirmish, the Muladies easily defeated the Arabs, who were then forced to take shelter in a primitive red castle located in the province of Elvira, currently located in Granada. The castle was mainly ignored until the eleventh century, when its ruins were revived and rebuilt by Samuel in Naghrela, vizier to the King Bādīs of the Zirid Dynasty, in an effort to preserve the small Jewish colony also located on the Sabikah hill. According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was not large, and its walls did not have the ability of deterring an army determined to  conquer.

Founder of the Nasrid Dynasty,Ibn Nasr,  was forced to flee to Jaén to avoid persecution by King Ferdinand and his followers during attempts to rid Spain of Moorish Dominion. After making his way to Granada, Ibn-Nasr lived at the Palace of Bādis in the Alhambra. Several months later, he began on the construction of a new Alhambra fit for a king to reside. The lay-out included plans for six palaces, five of which were grouped in the northeast quadrant forming a royal quarter, two circuit towers, and numerous bathhouses. During the rule of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city complete with an irrigation system composed of acequias for the gardens of the Generalife located outside the fortress. Before, the old Alhambra structure depended on water from rain that was collected from a cistern and from what could be brought up from the Albaicín. The creation of the Sultan’s Canal solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive and ascetic structure.

Travel from the city to the Alhambra Park is possible by the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A steep ascent leads past the Pillar of Charles V, a fountain constructed in 1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Judgment), a large impressive horseshoe archway surmounted by a square tower and used by the Moors as an informal court of justice. The hand of Fatima, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the same  place on the interior.

Currently, the entrance to the Palacio Árabe, or Casa Real (Moorish palace), is located by a small door from which a corridor meets  the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the Pond), from the Arabic birka, “pool”. This court is 42 m (140 ft) long by 22 m (74 ft) wide; and in the middle, there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing around the sides. There are galleries on the north and south sides; the one on the south is 7 m (27 ft) high and supported by a marble column. From this court, the walls of the Torre de Comares can be seen rising over the rooftop to the north and reflected in the pond.

The square is paved with colored tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while the walls are covered 5 ft (1.5 m)  with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and gold. You will find that the columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly placed. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; about each arch there is a large square of arabesques; and over the pillars is another square of filigree work. The Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is an oblong court, 116 ft (35 m) long and 66 ft (20 m) wide, surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the court, with filigree walls and a light domed roof.

Of the outer buildings in connection with the Alhambra, the most iteresting is the Palacio de Generalife. This villa more than likely dates from the end of the 13th century but has been restored several times. Its gardens, however, with their clipped hedges, grottos, fountains, and cypress avenues, are said to keep their original Moorish character. The Torres Bermejas, also on Monte Mauror, is a well-preserved Moorish fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a garrison of 200 men. The Villa de los Martire remembers by its name the Christian slaves who were forced to build the Alhambra and kept here in subterranean cells.

The Muslim rulers lost Granada and Alhambra in 1492 without the fortress itself being attacked when King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile dominated the surrounding region with an overwhelming force of numbers.

The Alhambra matches many medieval Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a castle, a palace, and a residential annex. The alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the desolate and precipitous land which terminates the plateau on the northwest. Only massive outer walls, towers, and ramparts are left. On its watchtower, the Torre de la Vela, 25 m (85 ft) high, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised, in remembrance of the Spanish conquest of Granada on January 2, 1492.

Alhambra Visitor Information
The Alhambra is located in Granada Spain and is open year round. General admission tickets are €10 while tickets to the famous gardens are €5. The park opens at 8:30pm and is open to 6pm or 8pm depending on the season. It is important to arrive early as general admission tickets are sold on a first come, first serve basis. If you do not arrive by 9:30am, tickets are usually sold out, especially during the high tourist season.

Some of the things to highlight  while visiting Alhambra include:

• Travel to the Alhambra by foot- Alhambra is located at the top of a hill so going by foot is recommended to enjoy the natural and artistic aspects of the surroundings.

• The Gate of Pomegranates- This is the beginning of the tree lined avenues of the Alhambra. Pedro Machuca built this gate under the orders of Charles V around 1536.

• See a Flamenco Show - Everyday at 10:00 a “zambra” which is a form of a flamenco show which is danced in caves of the Sacromonte, the gypsy district is offered at the Alhambra.

• The World Famous Gardens of Generalife - The marvelous gardens, bordering on the Alhambra, were made in the early 14th century and conserve their original shaping. They have inspired many musicians and authors.

Angkor Wat History
The beginning of the Angkorian period was shortly after 800 A.D., when the Khmer King Jayavarman II announced the independence of Cambodia and established his capital at the northern end of Tonle Sap.  In 802 Jayavarman rendered his new status by declaring himself “universal monarch.”

For the next 300 years, between 900 and 1200 CE,  some of the world’s most amazing architectural masterpieces the Khmer empire produced, were in the area we know as Angkor.  Most of them are in an area about 15 miles east to west and 5 miles north to south. There are 72 major temples or other buildings in this area. The Angkor settlement around the temple complex was over 3,000 km² (1,150 square miles).

The main temple is Angkor Wat, built between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. After uniting his political position through military  diplomacy,campaigns, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman began the construction of Angkor Wat near what is now Siem Reap. With walls on each side nearly one-half mile long, Angkor Wat exudes the Hindu cosmology, and the central towers represent Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.

After defeating the neighboring Cham in 1181, Jayavarman took reign. He was known to be the greatest of the Angkorian kings. Jayavarman built the walled city of Angkor Thom, as well as its geographic and spiritual center, the temple known as the Bayon. Bas-reliefs at the Bayon represent not only the king’s battles with the Cham, but also representations from the life of Khmer villagers and courtiers. Jayavarman also constructed the well-known temples of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan, who he dedicated to his parents. During Jayavarman’s reign, Hindu temples were altered to show images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist shrine. The kingdom fell into a period of internal strife following the death of Suryavarman.

The year Angkor was rampaged and looted by Thai invaders, was notably the end of the Angkorian period and was generally around 1431 A.D. even though the civilization already had been in decline in the 13th and 14th centuries. During the 15th century, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned, except for Angkor Wat, which remained a Buddhist shrine. Angkor Wat was put on Unesco’s list of World Heritage sites in 1992 after many decades of wear and tear had taken their toll on this site in Cambodia.

Angkor Visitor Information
Visitors to the temples of Angkor must buy an entrance ticket. The ticket sales booths are open from 5 a.m. in the morning to 5:30 p.m. at night. A one day pass is US$ 20, a three day is US$ 40, and a week pass costs US$ 60.

Visitors must show their Angkor Pass every time they pass one of the checkpoints and at the entrance to most temples and other monuments in the Angkor Park. The temples are open from sunrise to sunset.

Angkor Wat is in western Cambodia near the Thailand border. The nearest town and the launching ground for tours is Siem Reap. The US dollar is the de facto currency of the country.

Besides the obvious vast amount of temples, here are some other highlights not to miss while at Angkor:

• Sunrise at Angkor Wat - Sunrise absolutely cannot be missed. Rays of light raised behind Angkor Wat make the whole temple covered with a spectacular and mysterious atmosphere that you must take in.
• The reflection of the three towers symmetry of Angkor Wat - One of the must-do’s and what most tourist do is jostle themselves for a shot of the reflection of the three towers symmetry of Angkor with the reflection in the pond. Since this is a place of interest with many tourist, this is also a good stopping point if you are alone. You can ask fellow travelers to take your photo with the background as evidence that you were there.
• Siem Reap - is the town and providence where Angkor Wat is located. It is only at the beginning of modernization and urbanization, so there are still interesting communities around the temples. This is also a great way to visit neat little markets  and contribute to the local village.
• Bayon Temple - If you only see one other temple besides Angkor Wat, Bayon should be the one. The giant stone faces of Bayon have become one of the most recognizable images connected to classic Khmer art and architecture. There are 37 standing towers, most but not all sporting four carved faces oriented toward the cardinal points. It is best to plan multiple days to see all of the temples, but if time does not allow, Bayon should be on your list.

Angkor Conservation Efforts
The celebrated Angkor temple complex is in great disrepair and is one of the many sites in the world where tourism has been a double edged sword. It currently draws about one million tourists a year, but estimates suggest that over the next few years visitor numbers could swell to as many as five million a year.

Such an increase in traffic is something the ancient sandstone structures are ill-equipped to cope. Even before the Communist guerrillas started shooting at it, the temple had to endure centuries of neglect in the humid jungle.

Conservation work on the site resumed after the end of the Cambodia civil war, and since 1993 has been jointly coordinated by the French and Japanese and UNESCO through the International Coordinating Committee on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), while Cambodian work is carried out by APSARA. Some temples have been carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations. The World Monuments Fund has aided Preah Khan, the Churning of the Sea of Milk (a 49-meter-long bas-relief frieze in Angkor Wat), Ta Som, and Phnom Bakheng.

Conservation efforts continue year after year in order to preserve the sites not only from the onslaught of tourism but from nature too. Locals are educated on the value of the site and on sustainable tourism methods. Angkor Wat is also under the constant threat of looting.

Colosseum History

The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater. It was named after its builders, the emperors Vespasian and Titus, both from the Flavian family. Construction began around 70 AD near the Palatine, Esquiline, and Caelian hills. The Colosseum was built to entertain the masses with barbaric games, such as the famous gladiator games.

The opening celebration was a 100 days of games in which thousands of animals and gladiators were killed. The Colosseum was finished in 80 AD and can accommodate more than 50,000 people. . Often times, the Colosseum was flooded in order to stage small naval battles. The emperor had his own entrance to the Colosseum, and from his private “box seat” he decided the fate of gladiators that had been defeated.  Beneath the floor of the Colosseum was a maze of passageways, and temporary holding pens for the animals. The floor of the arena was wood covered with sand. A manual elevator was used to raise the animals from the basement up to the arena floor. The walls of the subterranean passageways can still be seen today when you visit the site.

The Colosseum is also a marvel of efficiency. The Romans created tickets and assigned seating long before modern sports arenas came into existence. Before a game, a spectator would receive a ticket which had a number that corresponded to one of the 79 entrance arches. All arches had numbers above them. The ticket also included a level, and a seat number.

For almost 400 years, The Colosseum was used regularly and has survived through earthquakes, neglect, and the pillaging of popes who took its marble for their own buildings. It fell into despair for many centuries after its use, and has only been preserved in the last century.

Colosseum Visitor Information
Colosseum Admission Fees are as follow:
Full ticket - €15.50
EU reduced ticket - €10.50 (only for European citizens aged between 18 and 25)
EU minors & seniors ticket- €4.50 (only for EU citizens aged above 65 and under 18)

The Rome archaeological card is also valid at the Colosseum.

Colosseum Opening Hours:
Mid February - mid March: 9 AM - 4.30 PM
Mid March - end March: 9 AM - 5.00 PM
End March - end August: 9 AM - 7.00 PM
End August - end Sept.: 9 AM - 6.30 PM
End Sept. - end October: 9 AM - 6.00 PM
End October - mid March: 9 AM - 4.00 PM

The Colosseum is easy to get to with its own metro stop as well as being served by many buses. Tours to the Colosseum run daily and cost about €10 and can be used as a joint ticket to the nearby Palatine hill. You will also find many guides in the area who will offer you tours. Be careful who you choose- while many are knowledgeable and reputable, there are quiet a few who are not. Make sure they have an official tour guide license.

What to see while visiting The Colosseum:

• The Exterior - The exterior of the Roman Colosseum is made entirely of travertine, stretching 527 m around and four stories high.  There are 80 entrances, with the two main ones reserved for the emperor and his entourage.

• The Cavea - Otherwise known as the seating area. This is divided into three tiers: the lowest for knights; the middle for wealthy citizens; and the top for the general population. In total the Colosseum could hold up to 45,000 spectators.

• The Podium - The arena is surrounded by a 5m-high wall to protect spectators from attacks by wild beasts. At the top of the wall is where you will find the podium, on which the imperial party and other VIPs had their seats.
• The Colossus Statue of Nero - The statue after which the amphitheater is named, can be seen between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.
• Palatine Hill - As you come toward the end of the forum, there is a path that goes off to the right, up hill. The palatine hill. Approaching the Colosseum you will see several things. Vending trucks, people dressed as gladiators, souvenir carts, and tour touts.
  

Colosseum Conservation Effort
When restoration started in 1995, just 15 percent of the Colosseum was open to visitors. Now, up to 85% of the site is open to tourists. Last year, as many as 2.5 million people toured the world’s most famous amphitheater, making it by far Italy’s most visited site.

The Colosseum is constantly being renovated and cataloged in order to restore it. However, there is a lot of red tape in Italy as well as a lack of funds for many of their historic ruins. The Colosseum is not immune to this and thus progress on its conservation is much slower than it should be. Moreover, pollution from modern Rome is also a threat to the architecture.

Easter Island History
There has been a lot controversy over the origins of the Easter Islanders.  evidence if archaeological findings, however, indicates discovery of the island by Polynesians at about 400 AD - led, according to legend, by Hotu Matua. Upon their arrival, an amazing and enigmatic culture started to develop.  Alongside the statues, the islanders possessed the Rongorongo script; the only written language in Oceania. The island is also home to many petroglyphs (rock carvings), as well as traditional wood carvings, tapa (barkcloth) crafts, string figures, tattooing,music, and dance.

The population of Easter Island reached its capacity at  more than 10,000, far exceeding the capabilities of the small island’s ecosystem. Resources became scarce, and the once lush palm forests were destroyed - cleared for agriculture and moving the massive stone Moai. The island could no longer sustain the population and the society on the island, which mainly consisted  of a few dozen tribes, began to decline. The social order also began to decline into  civil war and, evidently, cannibalism, as people tried to survive. All of the Moai standing along the coast were eventually torn down by the islanders themselves. You will now find them placed around the island as  recent archaeological efforts have taken place.

Contacts with western “civilization” were even worse for the island population which, through slavery and disease, had decreased to approximately 111 by the turn of the century.  Following the annexation by Chile in 1888, it has risen to more than 2,000, with other Rapanui living in Chile, Tahiti and North America. Although there is a  growing Chilean presence, the island’s Polynesian identity is still pretty strong.

Easter Island Visitor Information
There is a Tourist Information office close to the main square on the island. Despite its extreme geographic isolation, the island has regular air travel from the mainland. There are many tourist services on the island and be prepared to pay a lot. Almost everything needs to be flown in from the mainland.

The flight is more than 5.5 hours in the air from the nearest continent. The only regular flights are via LAN Airlines. Fares range between US$300-US$1200 round trip from Santiago, Chile. There isn’t a lot of accommodation on the island and since things have to be important from far away, you will find the island very expensive. You can walk around the island to see the statues yourself- no admission fee is required.

Some of the highlights to see while you are on Easter Island include:

• Iglesia Parroquial de la Santa Cruz - This is the island’s Catholic church and a focus for the colorful Easter Sunday services where the priest is known to arrive and depart on horseback. Its interior is decorated with carved wooden statues, a vision of Christianity and Indigenous spirituality.
• Cementerio Hanga Roa - On the north end of town is the Hanga Roa Cemetery. This is a mostly Polynesian cemetery and is always vivid with decorations.
• Parque Nacional Rapa Nui - Created in 1935, this park comprises about 40% of the island’s surface. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995. Inside the Park you shouldn’t miss  moai monuments including Ahu Tahal, Ahu Ko Te Riku, and Ahu Vai Uri.

Easter Island Conservation Efforts
Conservation efforts on the island center on protecting the famous statues from decay and restoring them to their original glory. There is also a specific conservation project for two of Easter Island’s most famous moai, known as the “mama” and the “papa”. According to local tradition, the statues were named while poking fun at the early 20th century explorer Katherine Routledge and her husband William Scoresby Routledge. These statues stand in the Rano Raraku quarry, the source of most of the statues’ stones and still the location of almost 400 giant statues.

The AIA Site Preservation Task Force and Grant program was formed in 2008 in response to the rapidly accelerating destruction of ancient monuments and sites due to war, looting, extreme weather, and neglect. The Task Force believes that new approaches are required and will focus on people not just stones; that is the empowerment and economic development of the local population.

Machu Picchu History
Hiram Bingham, the credited discoverer of this historical site, along with several others, originally thought that the citadel was the traditional birthplace of the Inca of the “Virgins of the Suns”. Machu Picchu was built around 1460 at the height of the Inca Empire but abandoned less than 100 years later. It is likely that most of its inhabitants were wiped out by smallpox before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area, and there is no record of their having known of the remote city.

Another theories suggest that Machu Picchu was an Inca “llacta”, a settlement built to control the economy of these conquered regions. Yet others think that it may have been built as a prison for a select few who had committed heinous crimes against Inca society. Research conducted by scholars has convinced most archaeologists that rather than a defensive retreat, Machu Picchu was an estate of the Inca emperor, Pachacuti.

Although Machu Picchu is located only about 80 kilometers (50 miles) from the Inca capital, Cusco, it was never discovered by the Spanish and consequently not envaded and destroyed. Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle grew over much of the site, and few knew of its existence. The site was found on July 24, 1911, by Hiram Bingham.

Machu Picchu was established as a World Heritage Site in 1983 when it was described as “an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization”. On July 7, 2007, Machu Picchu was voted as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

Machu Picchu Visitor Information
There are several different ways to visit Machu Picchu: on foot, along the Inca Trail, by train from the city of Cuzco to Aguas Calientes, or by helicopter from the Cuzco airport to Aguas Calientes. Tours cost a few hundred dollars, while helicopter excursions cost more. There is a park fee of US$40 dollars to help maintain conservation of the park area.

Most people get to Machu Picchu via the Inca Trail. This is a four day hike through the mountains. It’s not long but it is very hard and the ascent is very steep. Tours book out months in advance and cost hundreds of dollars. The majority of hotels in Machu Picchu and the Sacred Valley can be found in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes. A little closer to the site itself, however, the Machu Picchu Sanctuary Lodge occupies an amazingly privileged spot, while back down in Cuzco, the Hotel Monasterio is an equally attractive (if not quite so perfectly located) choice of hotel in Machu Picchu and the Sacred Valley.

Highlights to see and do while visiting Machu Picchu include:

• Aguas Caliantes - Before your journey to Machu Picchu begins, Aguas Caliantes is a small village that sits at the bottom of Machu Pichu. The entire village is built around a river that is known for its hot springs. A small village where hikers and travelers alike are able to soak in the fresh air of the mountains, relax in natural hot springs, and fall asleep to the sound of the steadily flowing river.
• Temple of the Sun - The Temple of the Sun was used to honor and celebrate Inti, the Sun, an important Incan deity. When the sun of the winter solstice enters through the central window, it falls directly on the large ceremonial stone. The round building protects the stone.
• Temple of the Three Windows- located west of the main square and has a large rectangular floor. Its name comes from the fact that it has three main windows and two blind bays. With the main temple it is one of the most impressive architecture structures in Machu Pichu.
• Huayna Picchu - In Quechua this means “young peak”. The peak of Huayna Picchu is about 2,720 metres (8,900 ft) above sea level, or about 360 metres (1,200 ft) higher than Machu Picchu. You can hike to the top of Huayna Picchu in about 1-2 hours, and once atop you can look down over all of Machu Picchu. Truly a site not to be missed and well worth the extra hike. However, you may want to do this first as they only allow the first 400 people to make the hike.

Machu Picchu Conservation Efforts
UNESCO continually threatens to put Machu Picchu on its list of World Heritage in Danger sites, a designation meant to encourage swift corrective action.

In January 2001 the government began to regulate the trail and to require permits. Of the 93 tour operators that had sold Inca Trail packages at the time, half were denied permission to continue operating. To meet the new requirements tour operators must use only assigned camp sites with proper toilet facilities; carry all garbage with them; use only propane for fuel (no open fires); provide two guides for groups of more than seven tourists; and limit the amount porters carry to 25 kilos.

The World Monuments Fund placed Machu Picchu on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world because of environmental degradation resulting from the impact of tourism, uncontrolled development in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes that included a poorly sited tram to ease visitor access, and the construction of a bridge across the Vilcanota River that is likely to bring even more tourists to the site in defiance of a court order and government protests against it.

Parthenon History
In 447 B.C. the construction of the Parthenon began. The Parthenon is a large temple and its artistic appeal emanates from the refinement of many established norms of Greek architecture, and from the quality of its sculptural decoration. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. The Parthenon is a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis. I

The Parthenon took the place of  an older temple of Athena that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. Standard to most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as a treasury, and for some time served as the treasury of the Delian League.  The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin in the 6th century AD.  After the Ottoman conquest, it was transformed into a mosque in the early 1460s. In September 1687, an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment. The explosion severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures.

Parthenon Visitor Information
Tickets to the Acropolis are available at the entrance to the site and also include admittance to the Ancient Agora of Athens, located at the foot of the hill leading up to the site. This ticket will allow you entrance to all the sites around the acropolis, the walking paths, and Acropolis. It is good for the day.

The Parthenon is open from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. in wintertime and 8:00 a.m. to 7:30 p.m in the summer. Tickets are €12 per person. The Acropolis offers a number of free admission days throughout the year. Check the tourism website for specific days as it frequently changes. Children under 18 are admitted free.

You can’t go inside the Parthenon itself and most of it’s hidden under scaffolding because of restoration projects to the heritage site. This site does provide for excellent views of the city and other nearby historic ruins.

Some of the highlights to see while you are visiting Parthenon include:

• The Orders - The three main types of columns used in Greek temples and other public buildings are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The truest and most basic difference among the orders has to do with proportions (Doric columns, for example, being thicker and shorter, Ionic columns taller and slimmer).
• The Metopes - The metopes of the Parthenon all represent various instances of the struggle between the forces of order and justice, on the one hand, and criminal chaos on the other. On the west side, the mythical battle against the Amazons,  on the south, the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, on the east, the battle between the gods and the giants, and on the north, the Greeks versus the Trojans.
• The Pedimental Sculptures - These relief sculptures, larger than those of the metopes, occupy the triangular space above the triglyphs and metopes. The pedimental sculpture suffered badly when the Parthenon was hit by a Venetian shell in 1687 and the powder magazine inside exploded.
• The Frieze - The Parthenon frieze runs around the upper edge of the temple wall. Its relatively small size and is a bit difficult to see from the ground. It is known to illustrate the over-confident spirit of the Athenians, who dared to put themselves where ordinarily only gods and heroes might be found.

Parthenon Conservation Efforts
In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use. The incorrect reconstructions were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began. New Pentelic marble is being used from the original quarry. Ultimately, almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the structure where they originally would have been, supported as needed by modern materials.

Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron pins that were completely coated in lead, which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated and corroded. Since the corrosion product is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble. All new metalwork uses titanium, a strong, light, and corrosion resistant material.

An immediate problem facing the Parthenon is the environmental impact of the growth of Athens since the 1960s. Corrosion of its marble by acid rain and car pollutants has already caused irreparable damage to some sculptures and threatens the remaining sculptures and the temple itself.